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All you have to do is allow more than one photon and it’s trivial to produce a complex waveform. Radio waves that actually arrive at an antennae in real world applications consist of more than 1 photon, so I don’t understand why you’re so attached to this idea that it has to be all packed into just one photon.

Sound waves are not carried by particles, so I don’t see why you’re insisting on this single photon restriction.

I understand what harmonics are. I couldn’t figure out what point you were making.

But the original question was about radio waves, which are not visible light.

So I still don’t understand why you’re making the argument that it’s impossible to have a photon at one frequency and then another photon at 2x that frequency, just because they wouldn’t both be in the range our eyes can see.

So we should be feeding liquor to Barbra Streisand's dogs?

The process that resulted in Dolly was somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). The process was a big deal because it demonstrated that there was a way to reprogram a cell from a "somatic" state to an earlier developmental state.

This method was developed roughly at the same time that scientists first isolated and grew human embyonic stem cells, which were isolated from pre-implantation embryos. (as an aside, mouse ES cells have been around for much longer, but hESCs proved tougher to keep going in culture).

Human ES cells are super useful in research because they can be used to generate many different cell types, which we can use to model disease and generally understand tissues that might be otherwise hard to get from humans (think neurons or heart cells).

The limitation of human ES cells is that they're hard to make with the exact genetic makeup that you might want to study. For example, let's pretend that I care about a genetic disease like Huntington's disease, which affects specific regions of the brain. If I want to study human cells in a dish, my options are limited, since getting a biopsy of the brain and growing neurons isn't going to be easy.

If you could make ES cells with a Huntington mutation, you would have a basically endless supply of human neurons, but to do that you'd need an embryo with the Huntington disease genotype.

This is where the insight from Dolly comes in: because of Dolly, scientists knew that reprogramming was possible, and a few labs set out to figure out how to do it without physically transplanting a nucleus into an egg cell. The result was the induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC), which was a big deal and won a nobel prize. Basically, the recipe to reprogram cells using just 4 proteins was identified, and has led to a tool that is widely used around the world. Any patient's somatic cells can now be reprogrammed into iPSCs, which can in turn be used to generate all sorts of cell types to help explain the underlying biology associated with many conditions.

Turns out a bunch of research groups tried to clone monkeys and couldn't make it work. I know one scientist at Wake Forest who spent close to a decade on it. There's something about primates that make the cloning technique used for Dolly untenable. I think that Oregon Health Sciences University also tried for years.

Interesting thing...this scientist primarily studied alcohol addiction and wanted cloned monkeys to eliminate a bunch of variables. The idea was that a whole bunch of life sciences would like to use cloned monkeys for more control in their experiments.

She had lung issues and No cause which linked the disease to her cloning was found

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Her name was Dolly. She was euthanized after about 6 years due to a handful of genetic issues.

Other animals have been cloned since then, and it's been very advantageous in stem cell research.

The Wikipedia article about Dolly is well put together and very informative!

> Is the output from that antenna a variable waveform photon, or is it multiple photons of different wavelengths being produced at once.

A photon is a fixed unit of energy whose energy is proportional to its color.

If the station is an AM station, the photon are pumped out as if the woofer were attached to a photon pump, pushing more photons out on the upwave, and pulling back to create a relative rarity of photons on the downwave. The audio modulates the amplitude of the output signal (# of photons). The carrier remains on one frequency, as tightly controlled as possible - "1410 on your radio dial" 1411 is a little staticky, 1415 is worse, and 1450 is a whole nother station. Carriers run from 680kHz to 1500 kHz.

If the station is an FM station, it still pumps out photons but the audio isn't encoded in the amplitude of the waves. Instead a signal is generated at say 95Mhz, but it's allowed to warble, to swing 0.1 Mhz either way. Music is encoded onto the warble, so that high notes are one wavelength and low notes are slightly different, a continuum that lets you trace out the audio waveform.

So the FM station pumps out a steady energy but the wavelength warbles between 95.0 and 95.1, so that a curve y=f-95.0 plots the musical waveform. It's a little more ocmplex bc they actually create two signals on either side of 95.0, 94.9 for left and 95.1 for right. Or VV.

If I haven't totally munged this explanation, perhaps someone can explain how volume is encoded in FM.

It's an application area if you graduate with a Phd in nuclear physics. I worked with several physicists when I was in medical imaging. They dealt with dosimetry in radiation therapy.

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> able atrificially recreate something that happens naturall

This has been done.

Take some biomaterial like wood, feed it to bacteria, then compress+heat with some time. The result is a bunch of hydrocarbons that look like some type of crude oil.

We can change the feedstock (trees, leaves, animals), change the bacteria, fungi, etc, change the pressure and temperature, easily manipulate the time.

Mostly, we don't want crude oil. That fingerprint is good at identifying the source, but it's not very useful for the effort we put it. We want to make valuable hydrocarbons. Modern examples of this are anaerobic digestions. For instance, all your household waste that goes to landfill. We can bury that and put an exhaust pipe inside. Eventually, all the microbes in the landfill start to make methane gas + a heavy crude sludge that sinks to the bottom.

A 'nuclear pharmacy' is an amazingly sounding concept.

I mean, its obvious what it is, but still lovely to let the imagination to run about.

The University of British Columbia uses a long distance pneumatic tube. The video doesn't mention Technetium, but they use it for C-11 with a half life of 20 minutes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMTZvA8iFgI

That's unusual; road transport is more common. The production, from a particle accelerator, is quite common for certain isotopes though.

If your string was stretched between two anchors on a solid piece of metal bar, such that the string was vibrating, but nothing else was acting as a sounding board... and then you took the construction into an anechoic room and plucked the string you might find that the sound is directional - though the direction would be quite broad, you might notice "nulls" quiet directions when the vibration was in a tangential (sideways) as opposed to back-and-forth towards you.

Although there might still be enough turbulence around the string for the sound to be radiated in most directions. A vibrating ribbon, rather than a string may demonstrate the effect better.

In a normal (non-anechoic) room you get enough sound bouncing chaotically off the walls/floor/ceiling, you won't really detect "quiet" directions from a sound source.

Changing subject slightly, if you have a tuning fork, the direction of the sound from that is typically somewhat directional I recall.

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> If by complex the OP simply means complicated

No he means formed, like the difference between the waveform pattern for a tuning fork (smooth sinusoidal) vs complicated like an oboe. The flute pattern below shows strong influence from the third harmonic.

https://i.imgur.com/Qp13d3Y.png

I don't know of any way to impose harmonics like that on a photon, but I'm willing to listen if someone says otherwise.

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This is similar to asking how fast it moves if there was no time. It doesn't make much sense. If there is no molecular movement, then nothing pushes anything and force doesn't propagate.

> What does this mean? The sound that we hear from an oboe or a flute consists of multiple frequencies added together.

Yes, we call them harmonics, and they are the basis for octaves resulting from dividing a string into two (880hz A) or three (1320hz E) or four (1760hz A) etc parts.

So the harmonics are always higher frequency than the principal pitch, and and the first harmonic is always twice the value of the principal, eg middle C to C above middle C.

But visible light doesn't allow even the first harmonic, because 400 nm to 800 nm would make the first harmonic infrared.

So if you COULD modulate a radio wave with harmonics, which you can't, it won't create any new colors or visible whizbang.

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Most hospitals definitely do not have their own radioisotope generator.

F1 hybrids are NOT the same as GMO. Think of an F1 hybrid as similar to breeding two different dog breeds together. So instead of golden retriever parents = golden retriever puppy we have golden mom + poodle dad = golden doodle puppy.

These F1 hybrid varieties come from the same old sexual reproductive process that all plants go through, it's just that we (humans) select which 2 varieties to breed together.